The New Space Race: Building on the Moon

The first space race was about flags and footprints. Now, decades later, landing on the Moon is old news. The new race is to build there, and doing so hinges on power. In April 2025, China reportedly unveiled plans to build a nuclear power plant on the Moon by 2035. This plant would support its planned international lunar research station. The United States countered in August, when acting NASA Administrator Sean Duffy reportedly suggested a U.S. reactor would be operational on the Moon by 2030.

While it might feel like a sudden sprint, this isn’t exactly breaking news. NASA and the Department of Energy have spent years quietly developing small nuclear power systems to power lunar bases, mining operations, and long-term habitats. As a space lawyer focused on long-term human advancement into space, I see this not as an arms race but as a strategic infrastructure race. And in this case, infrastructure is influence.

The Legal Framework Already Exists

Nuclear power in space isn’t a new idea. Since the 1960s, the U.S. and the Soviet Union have relied on radioisotope generators that use small amounts of radioactive elements – a type of nuclear fuel – to power satellites, Mars rovers, and the Voyager probes.

The United Nations’ 1992 Principles Relevant to the Use of Nuclear Power Sources in Outer Space, a nonbinding resolution, recognizes that nuclear energy may be essential for missions where solar power is insufficient. This resolution sets guidelines for safety, transparency, and international consultation.

Nuclear energy in space isn’t new – some spacecraft are nuclear-powered. This photo shows the nuclear heat source for the Mars Curiosity rover encased in a graphite shell. The fuel glows red hot because of the radioactive decay of plutonium-238. Idaho National Laboratory, CC BY

Nothing in international law prohibits the peaceful use of nuclear power on the Moon. But what matters is how countries deploy it. And the first country to succeed could shape the norms for expectations, behaviors, and legal interpretations related to lunar presence and influence.

Why Being First Matters

The 1967 Outer Space Treaty, ratified by all major spacefaring nations including the U.S., China, and Russia, governs space activity. Its Article IX requires that states act with “due regard to the corresponding interests of all other States Parties.”

That statement means if one country places a nuclear reactor on the Moon, others must navigate around it, legally and physically. In effect, it draws a line on the lunar map. If the reactor anchors a larger, long-term facility, it could quietly shape what countries do and how their moves are interpreted legally, on the Moon and beyond.

Other articles in the Outer Space Treaty set similar boundaries on behavior, even as they encourage cooperation. They affirm that all countries have the right to freely explore and access the Moon and other celestial bodies, but they explicitly prohibit territorial claims or assertions of sovereignty.

Infrastructure is Influence

Building a nuclear reactor establishes a country’s presence in a given area. This idea is especially important for resource-rich areas such as the lunar south pole, where ice found in perpetually shadowed craters could fuel rockets and sustain lunar bases.

Dark craters on the Moon, parts of which are indicated here in blue, never get sunlight. Scientists think some of these permanently shadowed regions could contain water ice. NASA’s Goddard Space Flight Center

These sought-after regions are scientifically vital and geopolitically sensitive, as multiple countries want to build bases or conduct research there. Building infrastructure in these areas would cement a country’s ability to access the resources there and potentially exclude others from doing the same.

Why Nuclear? Because Solar Has Limits

The Moon has little atmosphere and experiences 14-day stretches of darkness. In some shadowed craters, where ice is likely to be found, sunlight never reaches the surface at all. These issues make solar energy unreliable, if not impossible, in some of the most critical regions.

A small lunar reactor could operate continuously for a decade or more, powering habitats, rovers, 3D printers, and life-support systems. Nuclear power could be the linchpin for long-term human activity. And it’s not just about the Moon – developing this capability is essential for missions to Mars, where solar power is even more constrained.

A Call for Governance, Not Alarm

The United States has an opportunity to lead not just in technology but in governance. If it commits to sharing its plans publicly, following Article IX of the Outer Space Treaty and reaffirming a commitment to peaceful use and international participation, it will encourage other countries to do the same.

The future of the Moon won’t be determined by who plants the most flags. It will be determined by who builds what, and how. Nuclear power may be essential for that future. Building transparently and in line with international guidelines would allow countries to more safely realize that future.

A reactor on the Moon isn’t a territorial claim or a declaration of war. But it is infrastructure. And infrastructure will be how countries display power – of all kinds – in the next era of space exploration.

Conclusion

In conclusion, the new space race is about building on the Moon, and nuclear power is a crucial component of this effort. While there are risks and challenges associated with nuclear power, it also offers many benefits, including reliability and long-term sustainability. As countries move forward with their plans to build on the Moon, it is essential that they do so in a transparent and cooperative manner, following international guidelines and respecting the interests of all nations.

Frequently Asked Questions

Q: Is it legal to build a nuclear reactor on the Moon?

A: Yes, there is no international law that prohibits the peaceful use of nuclear power on the Moon. However, countries must follow the guidelines set out in the United Nations’ 1992 Principles Relevant to the Use of Nuclear Power Sources in Outer Space.

Q: Why is nuclear power necessary for building on the Moon?

A: Nuclear power is necessary because solar energy is unreliable and insufficient in some areas of the Moon, particularly in the permanently shadowed craters where ice is likely to be found.

Q: What are the risks associated with building a nuclear reactor on the Moon?

A: The risks include radiation hazards, environmental damage, and the potential for accidents or malfunctions. However, these risks can be mitigated by following rigorous safety protocols and international guidelines.

Q: How will the presence of a nuclear reactor on the Moon affect the ability of other countries to access the Moon’s resources?

A: The presence of a nuclear reactor on the Moon could potentially limit access to the Moon’s resources for other countries, particularly if the reactor is used to support a large-scale, long-term facility. However, this will depend on how the reactor is deployed and managed, and whether countries cooperate and follow international guidelines.

Q: What is the significance of being the first country to build a nuclear reactor on the Moon?

A: Being the first country to build a nuclear reactor on the Moon could give that country a significant advantage in terms of shaping the norms and expectations for lunar presence and influence. It could also provide a strategic advantage in terms of accessing the Moon’s resources and establishing a long-term presence on the lunar surface.